Smoke and mirrors?

Since the last few weeks, Delhi — the national capital of India — remained covered in a blanket of toxic smog, prompting doctors to raise concerns about the growing number of respiratory and eye ailments among children and the elderly. Vehicular emissions, construction dust and smoke from farm fires are three major contributory factors to the air pollution in Delhi. Though Delhi’s air remains poor almost throughout the year, only in November it reaches hazardous levels.

In its latest analysis of the winter pollution of Delhi-NCR, Centre for Science and Environment (CSE), said: “This winter season has started with a much higher pollution level compared to November last year. The combination of adverse meteorological conditions, onset of crop residue burning, and high local pollution has tilted the scale dangerously, increasing public health risk. Even though the overall long-term pollution curve is stable and downward, it is still significantly above the national ambient air quality standards. This demands most stringent and sustained action on vehicles, industry, energy systems and waste management across the region”.

How is air quality measured?

Air pollutants come from a variety of sources, including human-caused emissions – like fossil fuel use in vehicles and cooking – and natural sources such as dust storms and smoke from wildfires and volcanoes.

Pollutants tied to human and environmental health impacts include PM2.5, PM10, ground-level ozone, nitrogen dioxide and sulphur dioxide. PM2.5 refers to particulate matter with a diameter equal to or less than 2.5 micrometres. It poses the greatest health threat and is often used as a metric in legal air quality standards. When inhaled, PM2.5 is absorbed deep into the bloodstream and linked to illnesses such as stroke, heart disease, lung disease and cancer, claims UNEP.

The greater the density of pollutants in the air, the higher is the Air Quality Index (AQI), a scale that runs from zero to 500. An AQI of 50 or below is considered safe, while readings above 100 are deemed unhealthy. According to UNEP partner IQAir, only 38 of 117 countries and regions averaged healthy AQI readings in 2021.

According to the World Health Organisation, 99 per cent of the global population breathes unclean air, and air pollution causes seven million premature deaths a year. The 2022 update of the World Health Organisation’s air quality database introduced, for the first time, ground measurements of annual mean concentrations of nitrogen dioxide (NO2), a common urban pollutant and precursor of particulate matter and ozone. It also included measurements of particulate matter with diameters equal or smaller than 10 μm (PM10) and 2.5 μm (PM2.5). Both groups of pollutants originate mainly from human activities related to fossil fuel combustion.

Deteriorating air quality in Delhi

The CSE analysis flags the following alarming pollution data for Delhi-NCR.

* Massive increase within a short time-frame: The most notable trend this year is the sudden and rapid build-up of smog episodes in this early phase of winter. On November 2, PM2.5 levels in Delhi crossed 300 µg/m3 or ‘severe+’ level for the first time this season. It was a very sudden escalation as the level rose a staggering 68 per cent within 24 hours. During the previous five years, overall trends show that PM2.5 levels start to rise steadily from the beginning of October. This year, the levels started to rise from the middle of September.

* The early beginning of bad air quality days this year due to lower rainfall during September and October: In contrast to the previous winter of 2022-23, the smog episode has started earlier this year.

* High influence of combustion sources – percentage share of PM2.5 is very high: The share of PM2.5 in PM10 is an important indicator of the impact of combustion sources. While coarser PM10 comes largely from dust sources, the tinier PM2.5 comes more from vehicles, industry and open burning. This year the percentage share of PM2.5 in PM10 has crossed 50 per cent, which indicates higher impact of combustion sources.

* Farm stubble fire count has increased but is still much lower than the seasonal peak of previous year: Estimate has shown that the percentage contribution of farm stubble fire to Delhi’s PM2.5 concentrations had crossed 25 per cent on November 2; it was in the 10-20 per cent range in the week leading to November 2. In previous years, on the worst days, its contribution had topped 40 per cent, as generally noted during the middle of November.

* Pollution hotspots remain most polluted despite implementation of action plans: About 13 pollution hotspots that were identified in 2018-19 continue to remain a challenge, while newer hotspots are emerging as well and have proliferated.

* Delhi is in the grip of a multi-pollutant crisis while particulate pollution is severe; nitrogen dioxide (NO2) levels are also rising: The levels of NO2 – which comes largely from vehicles — are also rising in the region. This indicates a high impact of vehicular pollution. City-wide average NO2 is up by 60 per cent compared to the first week of October last year.

Increased stubble fire in November

The NASA Worldview portal, during the last weekend, showed a significant increase in farm fires. It is alleged that the farm fires in Punjab are one of the biggest reasons behind aggravated air pollution in the national capital Delhi. Paddy straw burning in Punjab and Haryana is considered as one of the major reasons behind the alarming spike in air pollution levels in Delhi, Punjab, Haryana, and Uttar Pradesh in October and November every year. As per the Punjab Remote Sensing Centre data, Punjab recorded 49,922 stubble burning incidents in 2022, 71,304 in 2021, 76,590 in 2020, 55,210 in 2019, and 50,590 in 2018. So far, 17,403 farm fire incidents have occurred in Punjab alone this year. Last Sunday, 3,230 farm fires, the highest in a day so far this season were reported, reports Mint.

Stubble is the straw residue left after harvesting paddy, wheat, and some other grain crops. It remains on the field and takes a long time to decompose. Stubble makes it difficult to plant seeds for the next crop and disturbs the growing cycle. Moreover, it is not edible for humans and is a poor source of fodder for animals. Stubble has other uses as well, but they are expensive and most farmers can’t afford them. Thus, stubble is a nuisance for farmers, and the only viable option left for them is to burn it. Burning crop residue is a crime under Section 188 of the IPC and the Air and Pollution Control Act of 1981. Delhi High Court had also ordered against burning crop residues, while the Punjab government imposed a penalty of Rs 73.2 lakh on farmers in 2016, reports Millennium Post. On November 7, 2023, the Supreme Court had issued directions to ensure stopping of crop residue burning “forthwith”, amid a spike in pollution levels in Delhi-NCR. Following that order, Punjab saw a sharp drop in the number of stubble burning incidents as it recorded 639 farm fires while police and civil administration launched a crackdown against erring farmers to prevent crop residue burning, reports NDTV.

Reasons for increased farm fires

There are at least three major reasons behind the sudden increase in farm fires during the last one decade.

It may be recalled that during the Green Revolution in the 1970s, Punjab, Haryana and Uttar Pradesh started growing a high-yield variety (HYV) of rice developed by the International Rice Research Institute in the Philippines, which, initially, could produce more tonnes of rice per hectare. It also took much less time to hit full maturity. This rice variety was aggressively promoted by the state, with the government procuring around 80 per cent of the rice produced in Punjab in the 1980s. By the late ‘90s, the region had fully adopted the rice-wheat-cropping-system, with wheat being sown and harvested in the dry winter season, and rice to coincide with the monsoon season as per timings mandated by the state governments. Effectively, the two crop periods of Kharif and Rabi in the case of rice and wheat moved close to one another, leaving about 15 days in between the two crop cycles, which compelled the farmers to burn the stubble before sowing wheat, reports Money Control. Moreover, paddy cultivation is very water-intensive and large-scale use of groundwater poses a serious water crisis in Punjab.

Second, it is reported that large-scale stubble burning began in Punjab and Haryana as a consequence of the government’s initiative, in 2009, to save groundwater. Analysts argue that since 2009 — when the Punjab government enacted the Punjab Preservation of Subsoil Water Act to save water — air pollution in Delhi peaks in November primarily due to large scale stubble burning in Punjab. The 2009 Act prompted the farmers to shift paddy-sowing time. As the window for sowing wheat, a key rabi crop, is very short after paddy harvest, some farmers set their fields on fire to quickly clear off the crop residue.

In 2009, the governments of Punjab and Haryana introduced regulations and pushed the paddy sowing time forward by three weeks. The idea behind the step was to discourage farmers from using the groundwater for paddy plants as the monsoon did not reach North during April and May. Paddy requires a lot of water to grow, and due to the lack of rain, farmers use groundwater without any restrictions.

The steps taken by the government changed the harvesting period and pushed it to the months of October and November. The shifting of the Kharif sowing cycle by around 2-3 weeks caused the Kharif harvest to almost coincide with Rabi sowing in November. Closing the gap is a likely factor that encourages farmers to burn stubble, reports Millennium Post. The Pusa44 variety of paddy, which Punjab farmers cultivate, aggravates the problem. The Punjab government has told the Centre that the PUSA-44 variety of paddy should not be sown in Kharif season in the state, terming it an environmental hazard as it matures late and produces more stubble, reports Hindustan Times.

The third cause of increased stubble burning is due to the application of inappropriate farming technology. Reliable studies claim that stubble burning started in the mid-1980s with the introduction of mechanised harvesting for wheat (April-May) and paddy (October-November). Mechanised harvesting leaves taller and massive crop residue as against manual harvesting, which cuts crop close to the ground and leaves much less residue. Nonetheless, farmers of Punjab claim that they have been burning paddy stubble for decades, ever since they were encouraged by the government to grow it to overcome India’s food shortage. Paddy residue left by harvesters takes one-and-half months to decompose while farmers don’t have sufficient time to sow their next crop, wheat. Stubble burning is a quick, cheap and efficient way to prepare soil beds for wheat. There is yet another problem with paddy stubble which is why it needs to be burnt. Unlike other crop residues, paddy residue (except for basmati variety) are harder to chew, has low calorific value and high silica content, all of which makes it unsuitable for use as animal fodder. In addition to mechanised harvesting, intensification of paddy cultivation in Punjab in more recent years has also led to higher incidents of stubble burning, reports Business Today’.

Observations

Policymakers and environmental experts know the actual reasons behind Delhi pollution. But instead of taking any affirmative action to address the main issues, helpless farmers of Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan and UP are being blamed for the environmental hazard. Corporate-dictated inappropriate farming techniques and centralised development models followed by the Indian government need to be disapproved first..

Delhi NCR ranked third in terms of per capita income behind Sikkim and Goa, according to the Economic Survey of Delhi 2021-22. The year 2022 saw the sale of over six lakh new vehicles in the national capital, registering an increase of 32 per cent in comparison to 2021. Delhi is a hub for personal motorised vehicles in India. Total motorised vehicles in Delhi are 122.53 lakh. Cars and jeeps accounted for around 28 per cent of the total registered motorised vehicles, whereas two-wheelers are about 67 per cent of total registered vehicles. Vehicle emissions are a major source of pollution in Delhi. As per a report by Hindustan Times, 2,842 vehicle accidents took place till July 15 this year and 691 deaths had been reported.

Business Standard reported that the Delhi Transport Department has de-registered 54, 42,267 vehicles, as on January 31, 2023. These include 10-year-old diesel vehicles and 15-year-old petrol/CNG vehicles. Most of these old polluting vehicles probably got re-registered in the neighbouring states. Through this process, Delhi also transfers its pollution to other states.

A study by TERI reveals that the MSME sector has a huge presence in greater NCR. In the National Capital Territory (NCT) of Delhi, there are about 960 MSME units in industrial and non-industrial areas. Of these, more than 50 per cent are mainly in four industrial areas of Wazirpur, Lawrence Road, Narela, Badli, and Bawana. As per data collected by TERI, there are over 100 industrial areas and

thousands of MSMEs operating in the NCR, representing multiple sub-sectors such as leather goods, garments, textiles, cold storages, utensils, auto components, sports goods, mixed engineering, forging, plastic injection moulding, oil mills, food processing, secondary steel etc. Additionally, a large number of brick kilns, which primarily use coal as a fuel, also operate in the region.

In 2015, the Delhi government decided to do away with the requirement of consent from the Delhi Pollution Control Committee (DPCC) and MCD trade license for issuance of acknowledgment under the provisions of Micro, Small and Medium Enterprises Development (MSMED), 2006 Act. MSME is another major source of air pollution in Delhi.

Instead of blaming the farmers of the neighbouring states for the mounting air pollution in Delhi, the concerned citizens and policymakers must look inwards and address the primary causes of pollution. Enormous concentration of vehicles, MSMEs and wealth coupled with faulty agricultural practices followed in the adjoining states has led to a massive concentration of pollutants in the capital city of India. A decentralised sustainable model of development, based on time-tested agricultural practices, is the only alternative left to the government and citizens of Delhi for a non-toxic living in future.

Views expressed are personal